As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. We can also ask and answer certain questions that would be difficult or impossible to do with humans. The remaining four longitudinal studies assessed participants 35 times with final follow-up ranging from 924 months after receiving an assistance dog. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. In the next sub-category, six studies assessed life satisfaction outcomes using Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 57]. Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. If youve taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinners rats, Pavlovs dogs, Harlows monkeys. However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. Nine studies assessed self-esteem as a primary outcome, with four studies [14, 32, 36, 46] finding a significant effect of having a guide, hearing, mobility, or medical service dog on self-esteem as measured by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale [RSES; 53]. Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. Capitanio, J. Continued efforts are required to improve methodological rigor, conduct replicable research, and account for heterogeneity in both humans and animals to advance the state of knowledge in this field. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. Exclusion criteria were then used to select articles based on the following (in order): (1) irrelevant to study topic; (2) assessed an excluded study population (psychiatric service dogs, therapy dogs, emotional support dogs, or companion dogs); (3) did not report quantitative outcomes from assistance dog placement (literature reviews, instrument development, not original research); (4) reported unrelated outcomes (puppy raising, service dog training, or animal-related outcomes); (5) reported only non-psychosocial outcomes (medical or physical); (6) methodological exclusions (qualitative, case studies, single-subject design); (7) no full text available. [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. The electronic searches were performed on July 23, 2018, and updated on January 23, 2019. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Thus, this pattern may be better explained by the file drawer effect in which there is a bias towards publishing positive findings over null findings [79]. We found that studies reported mostly psychological outcomes (74%), followed by social outcomes (67%), quality of life outcomes (70%), and vitality (26%) outcomes. Moderator analyses will be useful in determining the potential explanatory effects that handler-service dog relationships have on psychosocial outcomes. In addition, the scientist must justify the numbers of animals that they use, insuring they are using the smallest number possible. Limitations and Benefits of Psychological Research on Animals Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. Yarmolkevich [46] found a significant effect of having a guide dog on positive affect using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience [SPANE; 49] compared to a control group, while others studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39] on affect via the Positive and Negative Affect Scale [PANAS; 50]. This systematic review identified 24 articles containing 27 studies that assessed a psychosocial outcome of having an assistance dog (guide dog, hearing dog, mobility service dog, or medical service dog). Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, a United States law, an assistance dog must do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability in order to receive public access rights [4]. In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [44] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [30, 41]. Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, United States of America, Affiliation: They have advantages and disadvantages compared with other approaches. As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). [66, 67]) but smaller than that of pet dog research [68]. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Summary of psychological outcomes across N = 27 studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. The other four studies reported no changes in participants mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [32]. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. S2 Table. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. Further, the number of years spent with the assistance dog at the time of surveying was unknown for half of the cross-sectional studies [29, 37, 40, 4245]. To achieve the second aim of the reviewto evaluate the methodological rigor of studieseach study was assessed if they met a set of 15 methodological rating items using a scale of yes, no, or N/A (Table 2). Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. A total of 13 mental health outcomes were assessed in which 4 (31%) were significant across group or condition. When human studies are presented, there is rarely discussion of the basic animal research that enabled those studies to be done. First, only 59% of studies stated whether ethical approval for human subjects was sought and received. To describe study characteristics, extracted items included participant characteristics (sample size, age, gender, country of origin), assistance dog characteristics (type and provider), and details of the study (design, measurement time points, comparison conditions). The concept of a Regional Innovation Ecosystem (RIE) has gained significant attention in the academic literature and policy arena in recent years [1,2].Based on the inspiration of the natural ecosystem, the RIE was first introduced by Moore in 1993 as a framework for understanding the dynamics of innovation within a specific region [].The RIE can be considered analogous to a natural ecosystem . Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms to humans of not doing the research. The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [32], hearing dog [29, 32], or guide dog [38] on life satisfaction using SWLS. Of 1,830 records screened, 24 articles were identified (12 publications, 12 theses) containing 27 studies (15 cross-sectional, 12 longitudinal). Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. Copyright: 2020 Rodriguez et al. The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. Studies are organized by design (longitudinal or cross-sectional). In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. In addition, we can better understand fundamental processes because of the precise control enabled by animal research (e.g., living environments, experimental conditions, etc.). Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. A study such as this not only helps us better understand how the brain works, but it also has enormous potential for developing treatments for people who have abnormal patterns of brain activity, such as those with epilepsy or Parkinsons disease. The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [33, 34]. (2017, January 1). In results sections, 15/21 studies with a control or comparison condition (71%) demonstrated that participants in each condition were comparable on demographic variables. Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. Further, in contrast to a psychiatric service dog or an emotional support dog, the assistance dogs in this review are not explicitly trained for mental health-related support and their effects on the psychosocial health of their handlers may be variable rather than population-wide. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review was conducted across seven electronic databases. In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. [16] found that those with a mobility or medical service dog reported significantly higher work/school functioning than a control group. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). The three Rs are a set of principles that scientists are encouraged to follow in order to reduce the impact of research on animals. Four studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39, 41] on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. [17] found no difference among mobility service dog users compared to controls. Jane K. Yatcilla, Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. Future longitudinal research in this population is necessary to understand the complex psychosocial and physical roles that guide dogs play in the lives of their handlers. The three Rs. Disadvantages of Animal Experimentation Ethical concerns Animals have to die for our research May be considered to be cruel Animal testing may not be acceptable regarding religious aspects Humans should not play god Animal testing can be expensive Animal experimentation may lead to the development of new diseases May be done in an excessive manner The below discussion considers various potential explanations for the inconsistencies in findings across studies. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research. Subjectivity Researchers working with dolphins and primates have been criticised for becoming overly attached to the research and exaggerating findings. [15] found a significant increase in pep, energy, and feeling less worn out 3- and 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog while three studies found no relationship between the vitality domain and having a mobility service dog [17, 28] or a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35]. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). An iterative, multi-stage trajectory for developing animal models and assessing their quality is proposed. Tissue cultures cannot develop depression, alco- holism, autism, learning disorders, memory impairments, aggressive behavior, social abnormalities, or other psychologically relevant prob- lems. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Why is animal psychology important? First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. Although this tendency occurs in many fields, the file-drawer bias may especially be prevalent in human-animal interaction research due to the preconceived notion that animals are beneficial for humans [80]. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks dont give the full picture of animal research. Table 3 summarizes psychological outcomes across studies in terms of general psychological health, emotional health, mental health, and self-evaluation. Secondly, many studies did not report sufficient detail in results in terms of estimates of variability and effect size. Research in the field of human-animal interaction (HAI) and assistance dogs is not only rapidly growing but is often disparately published across multidisciplinary journals and outlets. Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Overall, sample sizes were higher than what is usually observed in targeted animal-assisted intervention studies with dogs (e.g. [35] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. Only 5/27 studies (19%) described dogs breeds and sources. Six studies used standardized measures to assess general health and health symptoms, three of which [17, 28, 35] reported null findings on the general health domain of the RAND 36-Item Short Form Health Survey [SF-36; 47]. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). Other null findings included no effect of having a guide dog on social conflict stress and interactions with others [42], no improvement in social relationships 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and null findings regarding self-reported friendship and companionship with a mobility or medical service dog [16] or 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28]. For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%). This variation in assessment times makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions on conflicting findings. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. However, positive findings were found in depression using the POMS by a different study [13]. Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. In a few instances, they represent the only reasonable approach. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. Abstract. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. Further, as publication bias and the file-drawer effect is an often referenced weakness of the HAI literature [22], two dissertation and thesis databases and abstracts of two conferences were searched for unpublished studies. Finally, Rodriguez et al. The systematic literature review was conducted according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [21]. Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. An important question for the field moving forward will be to determine for whom an assistance dog may confer the most significant psychosocial health benefits for, and under what contexts or conditions. Capitanios research interests are focused on developing naturally-occurring nonhuman primate models of psychological processes, in order to better understand the underlying biology of phenomena such as loneliness, inhibited temperament and poor social functioning. Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. In addition to the different human and dog phenotypes that contribute to this heterogeneity, there are likely differences in the strength of the human-animal bond and attachment relationships formed between assistance dogs and handlers [19, 76]. All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. Only Vincent et al. To achieve the third aim of the reviewto summarize outcomespsychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology, are the finest-quality pictures of lovely, adorable animals that we have gathered for you and Friend. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. If it does, then it can be tested on humans with a lower risk of a negative outcome. This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. Abstract. Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. In this review, we have provided a primer on permanent and reversible lesion techniques currently in use in animal research, and a brief discussion of how they might . A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [9] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79].

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